Generation of high-yield, azimuthally spin-polarized positron beams from relativistic electrons in cone–channel targets

Yue Cao; Si-Man Liu; Kun Xue; Li-Xiang Hu; Jing-Yi Wang; Qian-Ni Li; Xin-Yu Liu; Jian-Xing Li; Tong-Pu Yu

doi:10.1063/5.0324067

Volume 11 Issue 4

Jul. 2026

Turn off MathJax

Article Contents

Article Navigation > Matter and Radiation at Extremes > 2026 > 11(4): 047204

Yue Cao, Si-Man Liu, Kun Xue, Li-Xiang Hu, Jing-Yi Wang, Qian-Ni Li, Xin-Yu Liu, Jian-Xing Li, Tong-Pu Yu. Generation of high-yield, azimuthally spin-polarized positron beams from relativistic electrons in cone–channel targets[J]. Matter and Radiation at Extremes, 2026, 11(4): 047204. doi: 10.1063/5.0324067

Citation:

Yue Cao, Si-Man Liu, Kun Xue, Li-Xiang Hu, Jing-Yi Wang, Qian-Ni Li, Xin-Yu Liu, Jian-Xing Li, Tong-Pu Yu. Generation of high-yield, azimuthally spin-polarized positron beams from relativistic electrons in cone–channel targets[J]. Matter and Radiation at Extremes, 2026, 11(4): 047204. doi: 10.1063/5.0324067

Citation:

Yue Cao, Si-Man Liu, Kun Xue, Li-Xiang Hu, Jing-Yi Wang, Qian-Ni Li, Xin-Yu Liu, Jian-Xing Li, Tong-Pu Yu. Generation of high-yield, azimuthally spin-polarized positron beams from relativistic electrons in cone–channel targets[J]. Matter and Radiation at Extremes, 2026, 11(4): 047204. doi: 10.1063/5.0324067

PDF( 5488 KB)

Generation of high-yield, azimuthally spin-polarized positron beams from relativistic electrons in cone–channel targets

doi: 10.1063/5.0324067

Yue Cao^1
,,
Si-Man Liu^1
,,
Kun Xue^2
,,
Li-Xiang Hu^{1
,
,
,},
Jing-Yi Wang^1
,,
Qian-Ni Li¹,
Xin-Yu Liu^1
,,
Jian-Xing Li^{2, 3
,},
Tong-Pu Yu^{1
,
,
,}

1.
College of Science, National University of Defense Technology, Changsha 410073, China
2.
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Nonequilibrium Synthesis and Modulation of Condensed Matter, State Key Laboratory of Electrical Insulation and Power Equipment, Shaanxi Province Key Laboratory of Quantum Information and Quantum Optoelectronic Devices, School of Physics, Xi’an Jiaotong University, Xi’an 710049, China
3.
Department of Nuclear Physics, China Institute of Atomic Energy, P.O. Box 275(7), Beijing 102413, China

More Information

Corresponding author: a)Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed: hulixiang@nudt.edu.cn and tongpu@nudt.edu.cn
Received Date: 2026-01-22
Accepted Date: 2026-04-21

Available Online: 2026-07-24

Publish Date: 2026-07-24

Abstract

Abstract

High-energy, high-yield structured spin-polarized positron beams have important applications in nuclear physics, high-energy physics, and information storage. However, their generation remains a significant challenge. Here, we put forward a scheme to generate these beams using a dense relativistic electron beam interacting with a gas-filled cone–channel target. The interaction induces composite focusing fields comprising the electric field from a plasma bubble and skin-layer magnetic fields from the electron beam and displacement currents. These fields compress the seed beam to ultrahigh density, thereby inducing extreme fields that enable efficient γ-photon emission and subsequent pair production, leading to a high positron yield. Furthermore, the azimuthal topology of these fields is imprinted onto the generated positrons, creating unique azimuthal polarization. Our simulations demonstrate the generation of an azimuthally polarized positron beam with a charge of 0.63 nC, a polarization approaching 60%, and an energy conversion efficiency exceeding 3%. Our method provides a highly efficient pathway for generating azimuthally polarized positrons, paving the way for their potential applications.

The authors have no conflicts to disclose.
Conflict of Interest
Yue Cao: Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Software (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Si-Man Liu: Conceptualization (equal); Data curation (equal); Formal analysis (equal); Investigation (equal); Methodology (equal); Software (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – original draft (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Kun Xue: Formal analysis (equal); Methodology (equal); Software (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Li-Xiang Hu: Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (equal); Project administration (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Jing-Yi Wang: Resources (equal); Validation (equal); Visualization (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Qian-Ni Li: Resources (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Xin-Yu Liu: Resources (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Jian-Xing Li: Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (equal); Methodology (equal); Software (equal); Validation (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal). Tong-Pu Yu: Formal analysis (equal); Funding acquisition (equal); Project administration (equal); Supervision (equal); Validation (equal); Writing – review & editing (equal).
Author Contributions
Yue Cao and Si-Man Liu contributed equally to this work.
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request.

FullText(HTML)

References(92)

References

[1]	C. A. Aidala, S. D. Bass, D. Hasch, and G. K. Mallot, “The spin structure of the nucleon,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 85, 655 (2013).10.1103/revmodphys.85.655
[2]	F. E. Maas, P. Achenbach, K. Aulenbacher, S. Baunack, L. Capozza et al., “Measurement of strange-quark contributions to the nucleon’s form factors at Q2 = 0.230 (GeV/c)2,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 93, 022002 (2004).10.1103/physrevlett.93.022002
[3]	A. Blondel, “A scheme to measure the polarization asymmetry at the z pole in LEP,” Phys. Lett. B 202, 145 (1988).10.1016/0370-2693(88)90869-6
[4]	A. Djouadi, “The anatomy of electroweak symmetry breaking: Tome I: The Higgs boson in the Standard Model,” Phys. Rep. 457, 1 (2008).10.1016/j.physrep.2007.10.004
[5]	S. Bornhauser, M. Drees, H. Dreiner, O. J. P. Éboli, J. S. Kim et al., “CP asymmetries in the supersymmetric trilepton signal at the LHC,” Eur. Phys. J. C 72, 1887 (2012).10.1140/epjc/s10052-012-1887-3
[6]	E. Boos, H. U. Martyn, G. Moortgat-Pick, M. Sachwitz, A. Sherstnev et al., “Polarisation in sfermion decays: Determining tan β and trilinear couplings,” Eur. Phys. J. C 30, 395 (2003).10.1140/epjc/s2003-01288-y
[7]	A. Bartl, S. Hesselbach, K. Hohenwarter-Sodek, H. Fraas, and G. Moortgat-Pick, “A T-odd asymmetry in neutralino production and decay,” J. High Energy Phys. 2004, 038.10.1088/1126-6708/2004/08/038
[8]	T. G. Rizzo, “Transverse polarization signatures of extra dimensions at linear colliders,” J. High Energy Phys. 2003, 008.10.1088/1126-6708/2003/02/008
[9]	G. Moortgat Pick, T. Abe, G. Alexander, B. Ananthanarayan, A. A. Babich et al., “Polarized positrons and electrons at the Linear Collider,” Phys. Rep. 460, 131 (2008).10.1016/j.physrep.2007.12.003
[10]	B. A. Remington, R. P. Drake, and D. D. Ryutov, “Experimental astrophysics with high power lasers and Z pinches,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 78, 755 (2006).10.1103/revmodphys.78.755
[11]	O. P. Novak and R. I. Kholodov, “Spin-polarization effects in the processes of synchrotron radiation and electron-positron pair production by a photon in a magnetic field,” Phys. Rev. D 80, 025025 (2009).10.1103/physrevd.80.025025
[12]	R. Ruffini, G. Vereshchagin, and S. S. Xue, “Electron–positron pairs in physics and astrophysics: From heavy nuclei to black holes,” Phys. Rep. 487, 1 (2010).10.1016/j.physrep.2009.10.004
[13]	K. Flöttmann, Investigations Toward the Development of Polarized and Unpolarized High Intensity Positron Sources for Linear Colliders (DESY, Berlin, 1993), Vol. 93.
[14]
[15]	F. Lin, J. Grames, J. Guo, V. Morozov, and Y. Zhang, “Polarized positrons in Jefferson Lab Electron Ion Collider (JLEIC),” AIP Conf. Proc. 1970, 050005 (2018).10.1063/1.5040224
[16]	Z. P. Li, Y. Wang, Y. I. Salamin, M. Ababekri, F. Wan et al., “Generation of relativistic structured spin-polarized lepton beams,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 135, 135001 (2025).10.1103/sj2g-wvzt
[17]	N. Romming, C. Hanneken, M. Menzel, J. E. Bickel, B. Wolter et al., “Writing and deleting single magnetic skyrmions,” Science 341, 636 (2013).10.1126/science.1240573
[18]	A. F. Schäffer, H. A. Dürr, and J. Berakdar, “Ultrafast imprinting of topologically protected magnetic textures via pulsed electrons,” Appl. Phys. Lett. 111, 032403 (2017).10.1063/1.4991521
[19]	Y. F. Li, R. Shaisultanov, Y. Y. Chen, F. Wan, K. Z. Hatsagortsyan et al., “Polarized ultrashort brilliant multi-GeV γ rays via single-shot laser-electron interaction,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 124, 014801 (2020).10.1103/physrevlett.124.014801
[20]	S. R. Mane, Y. M. Shatunov, and K. Yokoya, “Spin-polarized charged particle beams in high-energy accelerators,” Rep. Prog. Phys. 68, 1997 (2005).10.1088/0034-4885/68/9/r01
[21]	W. Heitler, The Quantum Theory of Radiation (Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1954).
[22]	T. Omori, M. Fukuda, T. Hirose, Y. Kurihara, R. Kuroda et al., “Efficient propagation of polarization from laser photons to positrons through Compton scattering and electron-positron pair creation,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 114801 (2006).10.1103/physrevlett.96.114801
[23]	G. Alexander, J. Barley, Y. Batygin, S. Berridge, V. Bharadwaj et al., “Observation of polarized positrons from an undulator-based source,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 100, 210801 (2008).10.1103/physrevlett.100.210801
[24]	D. Abbott, P. Adderley, A. Adeyemi, P. Aguilera, M. Ali et al., PEPPo Collaboration, “Production of highly polarized positrons using polarized electrons at MeV energies,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 116, 214801 (2016).10.1103/physrevlett.116.214801
[25]	J. Dumas, J. Grames, and E. Voutier, “Polarized positrons at Jefferson Lab,” AIP Conf. Proc. 1149, 1184 (2009).10.1063/1.3215617
[26]
[27]	J. Kawanaka, K. Tsubakimoto, H. Yoshida, K. Fujioka, Y. Fujimoto et al., “Conceptual design of sub-exa-watt system by using optical parametric chirped pulse amplification,” J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 688, 012044 (2016).10.1088/1742-6596/688/1/012044
[28]	E. Cartlidge, “The light fantastic,” Science 359, 382 (2018).10.1126/science.359.6374.382
[29]	C. N. Danson, C. Haefner, J. Bromage, T. Butcher, J. C. F. Chanteloup et al., “Petawatt and exawatt class lasers worldwide,” High Power Laser Sci. Eng. 7, e54 (2019).10.1017/hpl.2019.36
[30]	J. W. Yoon, Y. G. Kim, I. W. Choi, J. H. Sung, H. W. Lee et al., “Realization of laser intensity over 1023 W/cm2,” Optica 8, 630 (2021).10.1364/optica.420520
[31]	B. L. Garrec, S. Sebban, D. Margarone, M. Precek, S. Weber et al., “ELI-beamlines: Extreme light infrastructure science and technology with ultra-intense lasers,” SPIE 8962, 89620I (2014).10.1117/12.2039165
[32]	Y. I. Salamin, S. X. Hu, K. Z. Hatsagortsyan, and C. H. Keitel, “Relativistic high-power laser–matter interactions,” Phys. Rep. 427, 41 (2006).10.1016/j.physrep.2006.01.002
[33]	A. Di Piazza, C. Müller, K. Z. Hatsagortsyan, and C. H. Keitel, “Extremely high-intensity laser interactions with fundamental quantum systems,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 84, 1177 (2012).10.1103/revmodphys.84.1177
[34]	A. Gonoskov, T. G. Blackburn, M. Marklund, and S. S. Bulanov, “Charged particle motion and radiation in strong electromagnetic fields,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 94, 045001 (2022).10.1103/revmodphys.94.045001
[35]	A. Fedotov, A. Ilderton, F. Karbstein, B. King, D. Seipt et al., “Advances in QED with intense background fields,” Phys. Rep. 1010, 1 (2023).10.1016/j.physrep.2023.01.003
[36]	T. P. Yu, K. Liu, J. Zhao, X. L. Zhu, Y. Lu et al., “Bright X/γ-ray emission and lepton pair production by strong laser fields: A review,” Rev. Mod. Plasma Phys. 8, 24 (2024).10.1007/s41614-024-00158-3
[37]	F. Mackenroth and A. Di Piazza, “Nonlinear double Compton scattering in the ultrarelativistic quantum regime,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 110, 070402 (2013).10.1103/physrevlett.110.070402
[38]	J. X. Li, K. Z. Hatsagortsyan, B. J. Galow, and C. H. Keitel, “Attosecond gamma-ray pulses via nonlinear Compton scattering in the radiation-dominated regime,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 115, 204801 (2015).10.1103/physrevlett.115.204801
[39]	Y. Zhao, J. Liu, Y. Li, and G. Xia, “Ultra-bright γ-ray emission by using PW laser irradiating solid target obliquely,” Plasma Phys. Controlled Fusion 61, 065010 (2019).10.1088/1361-6587/ab132e
[40]	K. Xue, Z. K. Dou, F. Wan, T. P. Yu, W. M. Wang et al., “Generation of highly-polarized high-energy brilliant γ-rays via laser-plasma interaction,” Matter Radiat. Extremes 5, 054402 (2020).10.1063/5.0007734
[41]	C. P. Ridgers, C. S. Brady, R. Duclous, J. G. Kirk, K. Bennett et al., “Dense electron-positron plasmas and ultraintense γ rays from laser-irradiated solids,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 108, 165006 (2012).10.1103/physrevlett.108.165006
[42]	A. Di Piazza, “Nonlinear Breit-Wheeler pair production in a tightly focused laser beam,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 117, 213201 (2016).10.1103/physrevlett.117.213201
[43]	X. L. Zhu, T. P. Yu, Z. M. Sheng, Y. Yin, I. C. E. Turcu et al., “Dense GeV electron–positron pairs generated by lasers in near-critical-density plasmas,” Nat. Commun. 7, 13686 (2016).10.1038/ncomms13686
[44]	B. S. Xie, Z. L. Li, and S. Tang, “Electron-positron pair production in ultrastrong laser fields,” Matter Radiat. Extremes 2, 225 (2017).10.1016/j.mre.2017.07.002
[45]	M. Vranic, O. Klimo, G. Korn, and S. Weber, “Multi-GeV electron-positron beam generation from laser-electron scattering,” Sci. Rep. 8, 4702 (2018).10.1038/s41598-018-23126-7
[46]	S. Tang and B. King, “Pulse envelope effects in nonlinear Breit-Wheeler pair creation,” Phys. Rev. D 104, 096019 (2021).10.1103/physrevd.104.096019
[47]	J. Zhao, Y. T. Hu, Y. Lu, H. Zhang, L. X. Hu et al., “All-optical quasi-monoenergetic GeV positron bunch generation by twisted laser fields,” Commun. Phys. 5, 15 (2022).10.1038/s42005-021-00797-9
[48]	T. Erber, “High-energy electromagnetic conversion processes in intense magnetic fields,” Rev. Mod. Phys. 38, 626 (1966).10.1103/revmodphys.38.626
[49]	V. I. Ritus, “Quantum effects of the interaction of elementary particles with an intense electromagnetic field,” J. Sov. Laser Res. 6, 497 (1985).10.1007/bf01120220
[50]	F. Wan, R. Shaisultanov, Y. F. Li, K. Z. Hatsagortsyan, C. H. Keitel et al., “Ultrarelativistic polarized positron jets via collision of electron and ultraintense laser beams,” Phys. Lett. B 800, 135120 (2020).10.1016/j.physletb.2019.135120
[51]	Y. Y. Chen, P. L. He, R. Shaisultanov, K. Z. Hatsagortsyan, and C. H. Keitel, “Polarized positron beams via intense two-color laser pulses,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 123, 174801 (2019).10.1103/physrevlett.123.174801
[52]	K. Xue, R. T. Guo, F. Wan, R. Shaisultanov, Y. Y. Chen et al., “Generation of arbitrarily polarized GeV lepton beams via nonlinear Breit-Wheeler process,” Fundam. Res. 2, 539 (2022).10.1016/j.fmre.2021.11.022
[53]	Y. N. Dai, B. F. Shen, J. X. Li, R. Shaisultanov, K. Z. Hatsagortsyan et al., “Photon polarization effects in polarized electron–positron pair production in a strong laser field,” Matter Radiat. Extremes 7, 014401 (2022).10.1063/5.0063633
[54]	Y. F. Li, Y. Y. Chen, W. M. Wang, and H. S. Hu, “Production of highly polarized positron beams via helicity transfer from polarized electrons in a strong laser field,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 125, 044802 (2020).10.1103/physrevlett.125.044802
[55]	H. H. Song, W. M. Wang, and Y. T. Li, “Dense polarized positrons from laser-irradiated foil targets in the QED regime,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 129, 035001 (2022).10.1103/physrevlett.129.035001
[56]	K. Xue, T. Sun, K. J. Wei, Z. P. Li, Q. Zhao et al., “Generation of high-density high-polarization positrons via single-shot strong laser-foil interaction,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 131, 175101 (2023).10.1103/physrevlett.131.175101
[57]	V. Yakimenko, L. Alsberg, E. Bong, G. Bouchard, C. Clarke et al., “FACET-II facility for advanced accelerator experimental tests,” Phys. Rev. Accel. Beams 22, 101301 (2019).10.1103/physrevaccelbeams.22.101301
[58]	V. Yakimenko, S. Meuren, F. Del Gaudio, C. Baumann, A. Fedotov et al., “Prospect of studying nonperturbative QED with beam-beam collisions,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 122, 190404 (2019).10.1103/physrevlett.122.190404
[59]	C. Emma, N. Majernik, K. K. Swanson, R. Ariniello, S. Gessner et al., “Experimental generation of extreme electron beams for advanced accelerator applications,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 134, 085001 (2025).10.1103/physrevlett.134.085001
[60]	C. Clarke, E. Esarey, C. Geddes, G. Hofstaetter, M. J. Hogan et al., “U.S. advanced and novel accelerator beam test facilities,” J. Instrum. 17, T05009 (2022).10.1088/1748-0221/17/05/t05009
[61]	R. Babjak, L. Willingale, A. Arefiev, and M. Vranic, “Direct laser acceleration in underdense plasmas with multi-PW lasers: A path to high-charge, GeV-class electron bunches,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 132, 125001 (2024).10.1103/physrevlett.132.125001
[62]	C. Aniculaesei, T. Ha, S. Yoffe, L. Labun, S. Milton et al., “The acceleration of a high-charge electron bunch to 10 GeV in a 10-cm nanoparticle-assisted wakefield accelerator,” Matter Radiat. Extremes 9, 014001 (2023).10.1063/5.0161687
[63]	A. Pukhov, Z.-M. Sheng, and J. Meyer-ter Vehn, “Particle acceleration in relativistic laser channels,” Phys. Plasmas 6, 2847 (1999).10.1063/1.873242
[64]	A. Sampath, X. Davoine, S. Corde, L. Gremillet, M. Gilljohann et al., “Extremely dense gamma-ray pulses in electron beam-multifoil collisions,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 126, 064801 (2021).10.1103/physrevlett.126.064801
[65]	X. L. Zhu, W. Y. Liu, M. Chen, S. M. Weng, D. Wu et al., “Efficient generation of collimated multi-GeV gamma-rays along solid surfaces,” Optica 10, 118 (2023).10.1364/optica.479951
[66]	X. L. Zhu, W. Y. Liu, M. Chen, S. M. Weng, D. Wu et al., “Magnetic pinching of relativistic particle beams: A new approach to strong-field QED physics,” New J. Phys. 25, 093016 (2023).10.1088/1367-2630/acf153
[67]	X. L. Zhu, W. Y. Liu, T. P. Yu, M. Chen, S. M. Weng et al., “Dense polarized positrons from beam-solid interaction,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 132, 235001 (2024).10.1103/physrevlett.132.235001
[68]	X. L. Zhu, M. Chen, W. M. Wang, and Z. M. Sheng, “Generation of relativistic polarized electron beams via collective beam-target interactions,” Phys. Rev. Res. 6, L042069 (2024).10.1103/physrevresearch.6.l042069
[69]	K. Xue, Y. Cao, F. Wan, Z. P. Li, Q. Zhao et al., “Compact efficient polarizers for relativistic electron beams,” Phys. Rev. Res. 7, 023201 (2025).10.1103/physrevresearch.7.023201
[70]
[71]	F. Wan, C. Lv, K. Xue, Z. K. Dou, Q. Zhao et al., “Simulations of spin/polarization-resolved laser–plasma interactions in the nonlinear QED regime,” Matter Radiat. Extremes 8, 064002 (2023).10.1063/5.0163929
[72]	V. N. Baier, V. M. Katkov, and V. M. Strakhovenko, Electromagnetic Processes at High Energies in Oriented Single Crystals (World Scientific, Singapore, 1998).
[73]	M. V. Ammosov, N. B. Delone, and V. P. Krainov, “Tunnel ionization of complex atoms and of atomic ions in an alternating electromagnetic field,” Sov. Phys. JETP 64, 1191 (1986).
[74]	J. H. Posthumus, M. R. Thompson, L. J. Frasinski, and K. Codling, “Molecular dissociative ionisation using a classical over-the-barrier approach,” Multiphoton Processes 154, 298 (1997).
[75]	T. Ebert, R. Heber, T. Abel, J. Bieker, G. Schaumann et al., “Targets with cone-shaped microstructures from various materials for enhanced high-intensity laser-matter interaction,” High Power Laser Sci. Eng. 9, e24 (2021).10.1017/hpl.2021.10
[76]	L. D. Menard and J. M. Ramsey, “Fabrication of sub-5 nm nanochannels in insulating substrates using focused ion beam milling,” Nano Lett. 11, 512 (2011).10.1021/nl103369g
[77]	Z. Hong, Z. Zhang, R. You, J. Chen, S. Li et al., “Dual-head multi-photon polymerization 3D printing for parallel additive manufacturing organic/inorganic materials in optics,” Addit. Manuf. 103, 104772 (2025).10.1016/j.addma.2025.104772
[78]	L. A. Gizzi, G. Cristoforetti, F. Baffigi, F. Brandi, G. D’Arrigo et al., “Intense proton acceleration in ultrarelativistic interaction with nanochannels,” Phys. Rev. Res. 2, 033451 (2020).10.1103/physrevresearch.2.033451
[79]	K. Karimi, A. Fardoost, N. Mhatre, J. Rajan, D. Boisvert et al., “A thorough review of emerging technologies in micro-and nanochannel fabrication: Limitations, applications, and comparison,” Micromachines 15, 1274 (2024).10.3390/mi15101274
[80]	M. Paulose, H. E. Prakasam, O. K. Varghese, L. Peng, K. C. Popat et al., “TiO2 nanotube arrays of 1000 μm length by anodization of titanium foil: Phenol red diffusion,” J. Phys. Chem. C 111, 14992 (2007).10.1021/jp075258r
[81]	N. Ulrich, A. Spende, L. Burr, N. Sobel, I. Schubert et al., “Conical nanotubes synthesized by atomic layer deposition of Al2O3, TiO2, and SiO2 in etched ion-track nanochannels,” Nanomaterials 11, 1874 (2021).10.3390/nano11081874
[82]	C. E. Doss, E. Adli, R. Ariniello, J. Cary, S. Corde et al., “Laser-ionized, beam-driven, underdense, passive thin plasma lens,” Phys. Rev. Accel. Beams 22, 111001 (2019).10.1103/physrevaccelbeams.22.111001
[83]	V. Lee, R. Ariniello, D. Storey, S. Corde, C. Emma et al., “Precision alignment and tolerance of a plasma wakefield accelerator in a laser-ionized plasma source,” Phys. Rev. Accel. Beams 29, 041001 (2026).10.1103/tgby-pksc
[84]	Z. W. Lu, X. D. Hou, F. Wan, Y. I. Salamin, C. Lv et al., “Diagnosis of ultrafast ultraintense laser pulse characteristics by machine-learning-assisted electron spin,” Matter Radiat. Extremes 8, 034401 (2023).10.1063/5.0140828
[85]	X. Y. An, M. Chen, J. X. Li, S. M. Weng, F. He et al., “Mapping electromagnetic fields structure in plasma using a spin polarized electron beam,” Phys. Plasmas 26, 123106 (2019).10.1063/1.5118710
[86]	H. H. Song, W. M. Wang, Y. F. Li, B. J. Li, Y. T. Li et al., “Spin and polarization effects on the nonlinear Breit–Wheeler pair production in laser-plasma interaction,” New J. Phys. 23, 075005 (2021).10.1088/1367-2630/ac0dec
[87]	H. H. Song, W. M. Wang, and Y. T. Li, “Generation of polarized positron beams via collisions of ultrarelativistic electron beams,” Phys. Rev. Res. 3, 033245 (2021).10.1103/physrevresearch.3.033245
[88]	E. S. Weibel, “Spontaneously growing transverse waves in a plasma due to an anisotropic velocity distribution,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 2, 83–84 (1959).10.1103/physrevlett.2.83
[89]	A. Stockem, M. E. Dieckmann, and R. Schlickeiser, “PIC simulations of the thermal anisotropy-driven Weibel instability: Field growth and phase space evolution upon saturation,” Plasma Phys. Controlled Fusion 51, 075014 (2009).10.1088/0741-3335/51/7/075014
[90]	D. H. Whittum, W. M. Sharp, S. S. Yu, M. Lampe, and G. Joyce, “Electron-hose instability in the ion-focused regime,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 67, 991 (1991).10.1103/physrevlett.67.991
[91]	C. Huang, W. Lu, M. Zhou, C. E. Clayton, C. Joshi et al., “Hosing instability in the blow-out regime for plasma-wakefield acceleration,” Phys. Rev. Lett. 99, 255001 (2007).10.1103/physrevlett.99.255001
[92]