Gonzalez-Arrabal R., Rivera A., Perlado J. M.. Limitations for tungsten as plasma facing material in the diverse scenarios of the European inertial confinement fusion facility HiPER: Current status and new approaches[J]. Matter and Radiation at Extremes, 2020, 5(5): 055201. doi: 10.1063/5.0010954
Citation:
Gonzalez-Arrabal R., Rivera A., Perlado J. M.. Limitations for tungsten as plasma facing material in the diverse scenarios of the European inertial confinement fusion facility HiPER: Current status and new approaches[J]. Matter and Radiation at Extremes, 2020, 5(5): 055201. doi: 10.1063/5.0010954
Gonzalez-Arrabal R., Rivera A., Perlado J. M.. Limitations for tungsten as plasma facing material in the diverse scenarios of the European inertial confinement fusion facility HiPER: Current status and new approaches[J]. Matter and Radiation at Extremes, 2020, 5(5): 055201. doi: 10.1063/5.0010954
Citation:
Gonzalez-Arrabal R., Rivera A., Perlado J. M.. Limitations for tungsten as plasma facing material in the diverse scenarios of the European inertial confinement fusion facility HiPER: Current status and new approaches[J]. Matter and Radiation at Extremes, 2020, 5(5): 055201. doi: 10.1063/5.0010954
Limitations for tungsten as plasma facing material in the diverse scenarios of the European inertial confinement fusion facility HiPER: Current status and new approaches
The high-power laser energy research (HiPER) project was a European project for demonstrating the feasibility of inertial fusion energy based on using direct-drive targets in a shock ignition scheme using a drywall evacuated chamber. HiPER was intended to drive the transition from a scientific proof of principle to a demonstration power plant in Europe. The project was divided into three realistic scenarios (Experimental, Prototype, and Demo) to help identify open problems and select appropriate technologies to solve them. One of the problems identified was the lack of appropriate plasma-facing materials (PFMs) for the reaction chamber. Therefore, a major challenge was to develop radiation-resistant materials able to withstand the large thermal loads and radiation in these reactors. In this paper, we describe the main threats that coarse-grained W would face in the diverse HiPER scenarios. Based on purely thermomechanical considerations, the W lifetimes for the HiPER Prototype and Demo scenarios are limited by fatigue to 14 000 h and 28 h, respectively. The combined effects of thermal load and atomistic damage significantly reduce these lifetimes to just ∼1000 shots for the Experimental scenario and a few minutes and seconds for the Prototype and Demo scenarios, respectively. Thus, coarse-grained W is not an appropriate PFM for the Prototype or Demo scenarios. Therefore, alternatives to this material need to be identified. Here, we review some of the different approaches that are being investigated, highlight the work done to characterize these new materials, and suggest further experiments.
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Figure 1. (a) Layout of the HiPER reactor. Reprinted with permission from J. M. Perlado et al., Proc. SPIE 8080, 80801Z (2011).18 Copyright 2011 SPIE Digital Library. (b) Schematic view of the chamber designed for the HiPER Prototype and Demo scenarios.
Figure 2. Schematic overview of the most significant species produced in the explosion, together with their time of flight (TOF) and the depth at which they deposit most of their energy.
Figure 3. Heat flux factor (FHF) calculated for the different HiPER scenarios: Experimental (green dot), Prototype (yellow dot), and Demo (red dot). For comparison, FHF values reported by Linke et al.75 and Renk et al.76 for surface modifications are also plotted (blue dots): roughening (R), cracking (C), melting (M), and boiling (B).
Figure 4. Temperature of W as a function of time at different depths within the PFM for (a) HiPER Experimental scenario (first pulse), (b) HiPER Prototype scenario (steady state), and (c) HiPER Demo scenario (steady state). The steady state was reached ∼6 s and ∼60 s after the beginning of operation for HiPER Prototype and Demo scenarios, respectively. Reprinted with permission from Garoz et al., Nucl. Fusion 56, 126014 (2016). Copyright 2016 IOP Sciences.
Figure 5. Maximum temperature calculated at the W surface and the maximum steady-state temperature. For comparison, the recrystallization and melting temperatures for W are indicated with dashed lines.
Figure 6. Transverse stress (left) and axial strain (right) in W as a function of time for different depths. (a) HiPER Experimental scenario (first pulse). (b) HiPER Prototype scenario (steady state). (c) HiPER Demo scenario (steady state). Reprinted with permission from Garoz et al., Nucl. Fusion 56, 126014 (2016). Copyright 2016 IOP Sciences.
Figure 7. Scanning electron microscopy images of the surface of a W sample after exposure to 1600 pulses of (a) a nitrogen beam and (b) a helium beam. Reprinted with permission from Renk et al., Fusion Sci. Technol. 61, 57–80 (2012). Copyright 2012 Taylor and Francis the American Nuclear Society (http://www.asn.org/).
Figure 8. [(a)–(c)] Ratio of He retained to total implanted He for W samples irradiated with He at 3 keV under different conditions: (a) Continuous irradiation at a dose rate of 2 × 1012 cm−2 s−1. (b) Pulsed irradiation, with 2 × 1012 cm−2 per pulse at a repetition rate of 1 Hz. (c) Comparison of continuous and pulsed irradiation at 1300 K and for different fluxes. In all cases, the number of He ions per cm2 averaged over 1 s is the same (2 × 1012 cm−2 or 2 × 1013 cm−2). [(d)–(f)] Fraction of He retained in trapping sites for W samples irradiated with He at 3 keV under different conditions. (d) Pulsed irradiation at 700 K, with 2 × 1013 cm−2 per pulse at a repetition rate of 1 Hz. (e) Pulsed irradiation at 1300 K, with 2 × 1013 cm−2 per pulse at a repetition rate of 1 Hz. (f) Continuous irradiation at a dose rate of 2 × 1013 cm−2 s−1. Reprinted with permission from Rivera et al., Nucl. Instrum. Methods Phys. Res., Sect. B 303, 81–83 (2013). Copyright 2013 Elsevier.
Figure 9. Top view (a) and cross-sectional (b) scanning electron microscopy images of pure α-phase nanostructured W coatings deposited by sputtering at the Instituto de Fusión Nuclear Guillermo Velarde following the procedure described in Ref. 152. The coating is made of columns with an average diameter of ∼100 nm, which grow perpendicular to the substrate.
Figure 10. Depth distribution of vacancies for nanostructured (NW) and monocrystalline (MW) W samples sequentially irradiated in continuous mode at room temperature by C and H ions at energies of 665 keV and 170 keV, respectively, as calculated by the Object Kinetic Monte Carlo (OKMC) code MMonCa at 300 K (black), and after annealing for 30 min at 473 K (green) or at 573 K (blue). Data taken from Ref. 113.
Figure 11. Implantation profiles of H calculated by the SRIM code for unannealed W: (a) nanostructured and (e) monocrystalline. Experimental (measured) and MMonCa simulated (calculated) depth profiles of H and vacancies for nanostructured W (left) and monocrystalline W (right) samples irradiated in continuous mode sequentially by high-energy C and H ions (665 keV and 170 keV, respectively) both at room temperature and at a fluence of 5 × 10 20 m−2: [(b) and (f)] unannealed, [(c) and (g)] after annealing for 30 min at 473 K, and [(d) and (h)] after annealing for 30 min at 573 K. The shaded region between 0 nm and 150 nm is not considered in the analysis because it is highly influenced by surface contamination. Data taken from Ref. 113.
Figure 12. Cross-sectional transmission electron micrographs of a section of (a) a Mo-coated W needle (a) unirradiated, (b) exposed to 1600 He pulses. (c) Scanning electron microscopy image of a Mo-coated W needle after exposure to 1200 He pulses in RHEPP-1. Reprinted with permission from Renk et al., Fusion Sci. Technol. 61, 57–80 (2012). Copyright 2012 Taylor and Francis the American Nuclear Society (http://www.asn.org/).
Figure 13. Nano-turf-coated tungsten foam. (a) 50×, (b) 200×, and (c) 2500× magnification. The ligaments are coated with single tungsten crystals and have characteristic lengths scales of the order of 5 µm. Reprinted with permission from Sharafat et al., J. Nucl. Mater. 347, 217–243 (2005). Copyright 2005 Elsevier.
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